A True Hero Essay -- Definition Hero Heroes Essays Role Model

A True Hero As I read David Halberstam’s ideas in his essay, â€Å"Who We Are† (2004), I started thinking about our nation’s leaders and heroes. September 11th came to my mind and the many firefighters and rescue workers who heroically risked their lives to save complete strangers. Then, I remembered that the media dubbed Jessica Lynch a hero when she came back to the United States. Not only Jessica, but also many other American soldiers fighting abroad are called heroes. I started wondering if their bravery actually makes them true heroes or not. I asked myself, what is a hero? Do people need heroes? Where does the belief that we need heroes come from? This belief has caused us to over apply our use of the word to almost everyone: leaders, firefighters, and even sports figures. Sometimes, those who we title heroes are merely good people in the right place at the right time or are simply doing their jobs. Essentially, we shouldn’t need â€Å"heroes.† Instead, we should seek role models and acknowledge the everyday worker. However, the ultimate search for a hero should be within us. We all have the capacity to embrace our inner strength in order to lead our lives with courage and nobility. I. Archaic Definitions In a US News & World Report special online issue about heroes, Clark (2001) gives several definitions of a hero: [heroes] go above and beyond the call of duty, they champion a good cause, and (my favorite) they serve as a calling to our higher selves. In an online â€Å"Answers† dictionary, hero is defined as â€Å"a person noted for feats of courage or nobility of purpose, especially one who has risked or sacrificed his or her life† (2005). There is a song sung by Bonnie Tyler called â€Å"Holding Out for a Hero† in which a line is: â€Å"I n... ..., from http://www.yourdictionary.com/library/changed.html. Jordan, R. (1989). The quiet hero. Washington D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press. Ruotolo, L. (1973). Six existential heroes: the politics of faith. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Singh, Manjari-Lu, & Yu, Mei. (2003). Exploring the function of heroes and heroines in children's literature from around the world. Retrieved Dec. 04, 2005, from http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/heroes.htm. Steinman, J. (2005). Bonnie tyler. Retrieved Dec. 11, 2005, from http://www.lyricscafe.com/t/tyler_bonnie/holding_out_for_a_hero.html. Think Exist Quotations, (2005). Quotes. Retrieved Dec. 06, 2005, from http://en.thinkexist.com/quotes/with/keyword/martyrs/. Warner, J. (2004). Do we need another sports hero?. Retrieved Dec. 04, 2005, from http://www.webmd.com/content/article/93/102060.htm.

Journal Entries for habit

Journal Entries for habit one and two Habit 1: Be Proactive According to Stephen Covey, being proactive is part of human nature and humans are responsible for their own lives. He indicated the details of a social map which consist of Genetic determinism (Ancestors), Psychic determinism (Parents) and Environment determinism (Boss or something in the environment). The proactive concept was explained further using the Stimulus and Response relationship and the catalyst story of Viltor Frankl. Between Stimulus and Response, man has the ability or freedom to choose.This means one can decide how to reactive to thing or how to handle each situation. What matters most is how we respond to what we experience in life. We need to take initiative and this means recognizing our responsible to make things happen. We need to act or be acted upon. In Covey’s own words, reactive people are also affected by their social environment, by the â€Å"social weather. † When people treat them w ell, they feel well; when people don’t, they become defensive or protective. Proactive people are still influenced by external stimuli, whether physical, social, or psychological.But their response to the stimuli, conscious or unconscious, is a value-based choice or response. Proactive people aren’t pushy. They’re smart, they’re value driven, they read reality, and they know what’s needed. Another important issue he raised in the book is for people to expand their circle of influence. Habit two: Begin with the end in mind According to Covey, â€Å"Begin with the End in Mind† is to begin today with the image, picture, or paradigm of the end of your life as your frame of reference or the criterion by which everything else is examined.It further means to start with a clear understanding of your destination. Using the principle that all things are created twice, Covey said the unique human capacities of self-awareness, imagination, and conscienc e enable us to examine first creations and make it possible for us to take charge of our own first creation, to write our own script. â€Å"Habit 2 is based on principles of personal leadership, which means that leadership is the first creation. Leadership is not management. † Stephen Covey said as he explained the second habit.He further in the book explained that, in business proactive powerful leadership must constantly monitor environmental change, particularly customer buying habits and motives, and provide the force necessary to organize resources in the right direction. Later in the book, Covey stated that, the most effective way he knows to begin with the end in mind is to develop a personal/ family/ organizational mission statement or philosophy or creed. It focuses on what one wants to be and to do (contributions and achievements) and on the values or principles upon which being and doing are based.Visualization and affirmation were also talked about. Shairay Jones Journal Entries for habit three and four Habit Three: Put first things first. To Covey, we are responsible for our own effectiveness, for our own happiness, and ultimately for most of our circumstances. The third habit is the personal fruit of habit 1 and 2. In Habit 3 according to Covey, we are dealing with many of the questions addressed in the field of life and time management. He used an illustration of four quadrants to show the essence of this habit and time management.Quadrant I stood for both urgent and important things. Quadrant III stood for urgent but not important things. Quadrant IV – not important, not urgent things while Quadrant II which is the heart of effective personal management stood for not urgent, but important things. These things to him are what we should put first before any other thing. He also talked about ‘gofer delegation’ and ‘stewardship delegation’ (taking control and giving control out respectively). Part three: Publ ic Victory At this part, Covey talked about the Paradigm of Interdependence.He asked us to remember that effective interdependence can only be built on a foundation of true independence. Private Victory precedes Public Victory. In the same way, Algebra comes before calculus. To expatiate on this point, Covey noted that independence is an achievement. Interdependence is a choice only independent people can make. So the place to begin building any relationship is inside ourselves, inside our Circle of Influence, our own character. Stephen further recollected an incidence he had with his two sons to explain what attending to little things meant.To him, Small discourtesies, little unkindnesses, little forms of disrespect make large withdrawals in our lives. In relationship for instance, the little thing are the big things. Keeping commitments, Clarifying expectations, showing personal integrity, apologizing sincerely when we make a withdrawal from our emotional bank are important things to do to make deposits in to our emotional banks. Covey mentioned that, with the paradigm of the Emotional Bank Account in mind, we’re ready to move into the habits of Public Victory, or success in working with other people.Habit 4: Think win-win (Principles of Interpersonal leadership) Under this heading, Covey narrated his personal experience at work with a company and at the end he noted that, whether you are the president of a company or the janitor, the moment you step from independence into interdependence in any capacity, you step into a leadership role. You are in a position of influencing other people. And the habit of effective interpersonal leadership is to think win-win. In addition, I learnt from this book that, win-win is not a technique but a total philosophy of human interaction.The principle of win-win begins with character then moves to relationship. Everything else is built on character. Maturity is the second foundation for win-win. To Covey, Maturity is the balance between courage and consideration. To go for win-win, you not only have to be nice, you have to be courageous. You not only have to be empathic, you have to be confident. You not only have to be considerate and sensitive, you have to be brave. That’s why we need to be internally matured, according to Stephen Covey.The third characteristic of a win-win case is the abundance mentality, the paradigm that there is plenty out there for everybody. From the foundation of character, we build and maintain win-win relationship. Shairay Jones Journal Entries for habit five, six, and seven Habit 5: Seek first to understand, then to be understood. Principles of Empathic Communication Stephen Covey began this session by saying this â€Å"if I were to summarize in one sentence the single most important principle I have learned in the field of interpersonal relations, it would be this: Seek First to Understand, Then to Be Understood. To him this principle is the key to effective interpersonal communication. It shows how we have such a tendency to rush in, to fix things up with good advice. But we often fail to take the time to diagnose, to really, deeply understand the problem first. There is a link between character and communication. Communication is the most important skill in life. In addition to communication, Covey emphasized emphatic listening, another important factor aiding the fifth habit. We must always seek first to understand before seeking to be understood.Empathic listening means listening with intent to understand and that is needed for habit 5. Diagnosing before we prescribe is also needed for this habit. Habit 6: Synergy Principles of Creative Cooperation â€Å"Synergy is the essence of Principle-Centered Leadership. It is the essence of principle-centered parenting and it catalyzes, unifies, and unleashes the greatest powers within people. All the habits we have covered prepare us to create the miracle of synergy†. Stephen Covey. He defined synergy to mean that, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.He illustrated this in different scenarios and talked about synergistic communication. He explained that, when you communicate synergistically, you are simply opening your mind and heart and expressions to new possibilities, new alternatives, new options. He talked about synergy in the classroom and in business. Another important thing he talked about was what he called Negative synergy. He also talked about valuing the difference; this to him is the essence of synergy, the mental, the emotional, and the psychological differences between people.And the key to valuing those differences is to realize that all people see the world, not as it is, but as they are. Part four: RENEWAL Habit 7: Sharpen the Saw Over here, he spoke about the principles of balanced self-renewal. This final habit involves taking time to sharpen the saw and it surrounds the other habits on the Seven Habits paradigm because it is the habit that makes all the others possible. According to him, it involves preserving and enhancing the greatest asset we have. Us) â€Å"Sharpen the Saw† basically means expressing all four motivations (physical, spiritual, mental, and social/emotional). It means exercising all four dimensions of our nature, regularly and consistently, in wise and balanced ways. To do this, we must be proactive, according to Covey. He also used the physical dimension, mental dimension, socio/emotional and the spiritual dimension paradigms to explain this point. Furthermore, he noted that balanced renewal is optimally synergetic.The things you do to sharpen the saw in any one dimension have positive impact in other dimensions because they are so highly interrelated. He, at the end, talked about Inside out again by quoting the words of Ezra Taft Benson†¦ â€Å"The Lord works from the inside out. The world works from the outside in. The world would take people out of the slums. Christ takes the slums out of people, and then they take themselves out of the slums. The world would mold men by changing their environment. Christ changes men, who then change their environment.The world would shape human behavior, but Christ can change human nature. † Shairay Jones Advance Reading Seminar The 7 habits of highly effective people Questions 1. What made Stephen R. Covey write the book? 2. Does he think the 7 habits are still relevant today? 3. Did he think the book would have the type of effect it had on the people? 4. Did the book influence him? How? 5. What habit had the most influence on him? 6. Where did he come up with the seven habits? 7. How does he fell to know that his book sold over 15 million? 8. Did he buy the book when it first came out?

Understanding Philosophy and Its Benefits - 1194 Words

Understanding Philosophy and its Benefits By: Anonymous Understanding Philosophy and its Benefits 1 Many of Plato’s dialogues such as the Euthyphro, Apology, Crito and Phaedo are based upon the same reoccurring theme, the defense of the study of philosophy. Plato’s dialogues notable for their depth in a relatively narrow framework, attempt to argue the benefits of philosophical reasoning through essence, knowledge and truth. To understand the benefits of philosophy one must pose the question, what is philosophy? Ironically, philosophy in itself is a reflexive question. It is this bidirectional theory that makes philosophy so profoundly intellectual. It becomes reason as to why trying to find out what philosophy actually is†¦show more content†¦Plato attempts to convince his readers through his dialogues the importance of the study of philosophy. Plato argues through essence, knowledge and truth throughout his various dialogues; Euthyphro, The Apology, Crito and Phaedo, to convey that importance, in what I believe to be a very effective manner. Philosophy is inherently referred to as the â€Å"knowledge of truth† and it is through essence that we obtain knowledge. By correlating these three intertwined entities, Plato has created a very solid argument and basis for his defense of the study of philosophy. Works Cited Cooper, John M. Ed. Euthyphro. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997.1-16. Print. Cooper, John M. Ed. â€Å"Crito.† Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997.37-48.Print. Cooper, John M. Ed. â€Å"Phaedo.† Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997.49-100.Print. Cooper, John M. Ed. â€Å"The Apology† Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997.17-36.Print. Rubric A – The typical A paper has almost perfect spelling, punctuation and grammar. It makes no mistakes in citation. It is well organized and clearly written. It has required number of words. It has a clear thesis statement near its beginning. It provides an accurate resume of the readings and class discussion relevant to its thesis. It has a thesis that meets the topic requirements. It presents a sound (i.e good) argument for its thesis. It considers possibleShow MoreRelatedPhilosophy : The Fundamental Nature Of Knowledge1461 Words   |  6 Pages Philosophy in my perspective is a study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, existence and the theory or attitude acting as a guiding principle for behaviour. The understanding that, philosophy is not just about a deep expression of our wonders and the search for knowledge is false from my views. Philosophy broadens our imagination and allows individuals to engage, analyse and criticize the wider world. Individuals have different thoughts, values reasons and method of communication suchRead MoreWhy Should Anyone Study Philosophy?1126 Words   |  5 PagesJune 5, 2015 Why should anyone study philosophy? What is philosophy in the article by Alistair Sinclair philosophical is the study about knowledge, truth, nature and the meaning of life. People try to know themselves, the world, and relationships with the world and others. The word philosophy comes from the Greek Philos (loving) and Sophos (wise) meaning literally love of wisdom; a person that loves philosophy is a person the loves wisdom. Philosophy is an action of thought; critical andRead MoreManagement Philosophy Comparison1706 Words   |  7 PagesRunning head: MANAGEMENT PHILOSOPHY COMPARISON Management Philosophy Comparison Management philosophies MGT716 June 15, 2009 Management Philosophy Comparison Management aims to accomplish group purposes with the least expenditure of material or human resources (Koontz, 1969, p. 415). The term management philosophy seems almost oxymoronic in that they appear to work toward different results. The goal of management should be to improve the organization. (Kirkeby, 2000) suggestRead MoreThe Evolution of Modern Marketing Essay1154 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction In order to understand marketing one must first analyze the history of production and sales as it advanced into a marketing based approach to customer satisfaction. By definition according to rdi, â€Å"marketing is a business philosophy, the process responsible for anticipating, identifying and satisfying customer current and future needs†(rdi, 2011). To appropriately cognize marketing, one must acknowledge the evolutionary progression that transpired allowing the concept of marketingRead MoreThe Theories, Social Transmission Versus Social Transformational Theories1548 Words   |  7 Pagesdescribed theories of transformation as, â€Å"less rigid then social transmission theories. Their central concern is the transformation, rather than reproduction, of the society.† These theories value the opportunity for a student to become empowered, understanding that they are agents assigned with the duty to improve their livelihood. The major difference between transmission a nd transformation theories are the production of desired outcomes versus the production of new social climate. Complacency inRead MoreJohn Rawls Justice is Fairness1525 Words   |  7 Pagestaken from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Some quick facts about John Rawls are: Rawls was born February 21, 1921 and died November 24, 2002. Rawls was an American philosopher and a leading figure in moral and political philosophy. John is most known for his book titled: A Theory of Justice published in 1971, the book is now known as one of the primary texts in political philosophy. Rawls received both the Schock Prize for Logic and Philosophy and the National Humanities Medal in 1999Read MorePersonal Philosophy : An Organization Level Leader1734 Words   |  7 Pagesand ethics shape an individual as they develop various understandings of how to relate to situations and dilemmas through their personal life experiences based on inputs from parents, family, experiences and organizations. To define my moral philosophy as an organizational level leader, I will first explain how my personal moral philosophy was shaped, explain and examine my personal moral philosophy and then I will juxtapose my moral philosophy to the E100 et hical concepts by explaining the strengthsRead MoreImportance And Importance Of Philosophy1179 Words   |  5 PagesSarah Smith Philosophy 102 Dan Synnesvedt 18 September 2017 What is Philosophy? Philosophy is the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, especially when considered as an academic discipline(Webster.) The value theory or value system is the system that is used in order to determine how one determines the importance of things, ideas and people. Philosophy can be a hard term or subject to fully grasp, while in actuality the word directly translated from Greek is loveRead MoreGlycemic Control Of End Stage Renal Disease1277 Words   |  6 Pagesviewpoints influencing the chosen topic and incorporate patterns of knowing to the advanced practice role. Phenomenon of Interest The writer will examine the prevalence of diabetes among the patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD), potential benefits, and harm during management of underlying cause, and analysis of glycemic index hemoglobin A1c (HgbA1c) in managing diabetic ESRD patients. Diabetes is one of the frequent reasons and common persistent complications of ESRD (Kovesdy, Park, Kalantar-ZadehRead MoreEducation Philosophy and Rationale1846 Words   |  7 PagesEducation Philosophy and Rationale Every instructor or a teacher has a certain ideology that he or she follows throughout the teaching careers which underpins everything. These ideology or philosophy is based on our assumptions about our definition of learning and our views on the nature of mankind, the purpose of education, the nature of the curriculum, the role of the teacher and the learner, and the nature of the instructional process. Similarly, I had a certain philosophy which focuses on introduces

American Beech, a Top 100 Common Tree in North America

Essay on Social Hysteria in Shirley Jacksons The Lottery

Social Hysteria in The Lottery Tradition is a central theme in Shirley Jackons short story The Lottery. Images such as the black box and characters such as Old Man Warner, Mrs. Adams, and Mrs. Hutchinson display to the reader not only the tenacity with which the townspeople cling to the tradition of the lottery, but also the wavering support of it by others. In just a few pages, Jackson manages to examine the sometimes long forgotten purpose of rituals, as well as the inevitable questioning of the necessity for such customs. The black box represents virtually the only part of the original ritual that has been preserved since the lottery began. It is there not only to hold the papers that will be drawn, but also to represent to†¦show more content†¦Old Man Warner represents the sentiment of tradition that exists in most of the townspeople. He complains that much of the ritual has been allowed to lapse. This is true. The only part of the original tradition that has been preserved is the use of the box and the stones. In a conversation with Mrs. Adams, he calls those thinking of giving up the lottery, a pack of fools. To him, and many villagers, the lottery, Old Man Warner quotes an old adage Lottery in June, corn be heavy soon, as if a ritual sacrifice is necessary for a profitable season. This superstition is what probably deters many of the townsfolk from giving up the old tradition. Theres always been a lottery, Old Man Warner says, but he also adds, its not the way is used to be, people aint t he way they used to be. Old Man Warners observation that peoples attitudes are changing is illustrated by Mrs. Hutchinson, the winner of this years lottery. Although obviously influenced by her position, Mrs. Hutchinson would like her town to follow the lead of other towns, and give up the ritual altogether. Her repeated cries of it wasnt fair! fall on deaf ears as the townspeople advance on her. As they see it, she is simply a sacrifice to the greater good of the town. Although Mrs. Hutchinson does not win her argument against the tradition, she represents changing attitudes, and the possibility that the lottery is outdated andShow MoreRelatedConformity Is A Jailer Of Freedom And The Enemy Of Growth1596 Words   |  7 Pagesdefined as acting in order and in compliance with social behavior and law, is an extremely ambiguous term, but it means that creativity and originality can be lost due to the standards set by authoritative figures. Many works of literature share the common connection that runs through all of their collective plots and express the dangers of agreeing with society. In Arthur Miller’s drama The Crucible, the theocratic community of Salem is engulfed by hysteria over witchcraft and is reluctantly led to oppose

Pangkor Island free essay sample

Have you ever heard Pangkor island before? If popular global destinations are generally what you look for in an overseas trip, chances are Pangkor Island in Malaysia wont make it in your itinerary list .However, there are many beautiful islands within Malaysia.Today , I would like to talk about pangkor island. Pangkor, with its charming mix of fishing settlements and resorts, is a fascinating and convenient holiday destination. It presents the visitor with a rare chance to live near fishermen and observe their lifestyle and also to simply enjoy the fine beaches and resort amenities. Pulau Pangkor is an island off the coast of Perak in north-west peninsular Malaysia, reached by ferry either from the old jetty or from Marina Island jetty both located in Lumut . It has a land area of only 8 square kilometers, and a population of approximately 25,000 islanders. It is promoted as a low-key tourist destination by the Malaysian government, but fishing, seafood and other fishing-related products remain major industries. We will write a custom essay sample on Pangkor Island or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I am going to talk about the history of pangkor island. In past times; this area used to be the center for piracy. The pirates had their home ports in the Pulau Gedung Hills, Pirates Cave and Pirates Rock on the island of Pangkor. Many ships/boats were taken over and robbed of their goods and products. The Dutch were active here in the times of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). People were especially keeping themselves busy with the tin industry, until the British took over. During the British rule the name has temporarily been Monkey Island. Later the island was named Pulau Aman (Peaceful Island) before it regained the name Pangkor. The main town on the island is pangkor town, it is located on the east coast. It used to be one street town and it is still not much more. Pangkor Town is a nice place to visit as there are many great local restaurants where you can enjoy typical dishes originating from the island itself. Furthermore, Pangkor Fishing Villages is located on the east side of Pangkor Island there are three fishing villages facing the mainland: Sungai Pinang Kecil, Sungai Pinang Besar and Kampong Teluk Kecil. In fact its a long strip of villages that continues to Pangkor Town. Although the villages are small they are interesting to visit. Many of the houses are traditional and some are build in the sea on stakes. Pangkor Village is a busy little place with lots happening, particularly in the early hours of the morning when fresh produce from fishermen and from mainland are brought in for the local communitys  daily needs. There are attractions in the island, first and foremost is Fu Lin Kong temple,it is a Taoist temple that has been build at the foot of Pangkor Hill nearby the town of Sungai Pinang Besar in Pangkor island. Many Chinese tourists like to visit and pray in this temple to get the blesses from god. However, other races and foreign tourist also love this place because Fu Lin Kong is one of the popular temple in Pangkor island and its exquisite environment to take photo. Fu Lin Kong has various Buddhist statues inside the temple and many alcoves and ponds around. The unique of Fu Lin Kong is that there is a mini Great Wall Of China build beside the temple. This has reflected the magnificent view of this temple. The next temple I m going to talk is The Sri Maha Kaliaman temple is something special around the Pulau Pangkor area. This temple in the middle of a palm-oil estate is unique.The temple is dedicated to the Hindu bloodthirsty goddess Kali, also known as the dark goddess. Its a goddess of death, destruction, bad luck and grief. She is still venerated in that sense.In Malaysia you will find Kaliaman Temples in many places. The historical sites of the island is Dutch Fort and tiger rock. Just south of Pangkor Town lies Kampong Teluk Gedung. There is the old but small Dutch Fort. It was build in 1670 and used for storing tin. The Dutch used to Fort further as a stronghold against local Malays and pirates.Today only some of the foundations are left. The Dutch Fort is located at Teluk Gedung.Just located next to the Dutch Fort there is Tiger Rockï ¼Ë†Batu Bersuratï ¼â€°. It means literally the stone of inscriptions. The stone is a large granite boulder and the image of a tiger. There are many activities to do in this island such as Jungle trekking. There is a very interesting and challenging trekking to do across the island.If you like to experience a tropical rainforest and do not want to go too deep into the wild of Malaysia, this is a good introduction.The 4 hour trekking leads to Bukit Pangkor and all across the island. Chances are you find wildlife like snakes, wild boar and hornbill birds. Furthemore,there are numerous beaches on Pangkor Island.Pantai Pasir Bogak probably is the most popular beach on the island. Pantai Pasir Bogak is a few kilometers away from Pangkor Town on the West side of the island. Pasir Bogak is the largest and most popular beach on the island. Maybe it is because it is so close to Pangkor Town. The water is  shallow and crystal clear, offering endless hours of fun and frolic in the sunlit sea. There are facilities for riding banana boat, Jet ski, boating, fishing , wind-surfing,kayaking, snorkeling and scuba-diving. Next,of all the Pangkor beaches, Nipah bay Beach is the most beautiful. This beach is located a few kilometers north Pantai Pasir Bogak. The beach is secluded and is able to maintain its natural beauty. Unlike other beaches, it has corals, sea cucumber and bird lovers can find the hornbill on this beach. Nipah Bay Beach has a beautiful view on two small islands called Pulau Giam and Pulau Mentagor. Both of these islands are not inhabited although you might find locals willing to bring you there. Giam is mostly interesting for snorkeling because the waters are shallow and theres plenty of fish to see. In conclusion, Pangkor is a small island, a sleepy town .It doesnt take much time for this island to leave an impression on you theres a sense of timelessness life seems slow here. It’s quite nice to escape the busyness of the major centre of Malaysia. It takes you back in time somewhat and allows you to see locals lead a different sort of lifestyle. Its the perfect place to get away from it all, sit on the beach and just reflect on life.

Media Ownwership and Control free essay sample

This paper shall give an overview of ownership and control of the media by considering the ownership and control patterns and models that exist. Further the paper shall dig deep into the theoretical perspectives of ownership and control patterns by considering the authoritarian/totalitarian, libertarian and the social responsibility theories of media ownership. Specifically, ownership and control trends of the Kenya media shall be analyzed, paying more attention to cross ownership of media and the implications of this form of ownership to media industry and society in general. The main concern is that with the rapid increase of cross media ownership, where certain media houses run newspapers, television stations ND radio stations, the credibility and neutrality of the Kenya media is questionable. This is mainly because in such a case, the information, news and general output of television and radio stations are merely a summary of what was contained in the newspaper. We will write a custom essay sample on Media Ownwership and Control or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The argument brought forward in this paper is that the Kenya media individuals due to cross ownership. There is thus lack of plurality of ownership and as a result lack of plurality of ideas, opinions and voices resulting from domination by few. To add to this, the major owners are players in other sectors and therefore these media serve to serve and promote their other interests. Therefore, the recommendation at the end of it all is that regulation restricting concentration of ownership and cross media ownership be brought to play so as to promote plurality of ideas.Media ownership and control are major issues in media policy in the field of communication which cannot be overlooked in understanding how media works. The ownership patterns of media have changed world over due to general economic growth. Before the 20th century, many media were owned and controlled by the state. This however changed with the turn of the century bringing with it a rise of numerous newspapers. Southern 2001) puts it that as early as the turn of the century, German press theorists were already dealing with the concentration of ownership that was developing in the German economy and the implication of these media ownership patterns. This trend followed in most western nations where strong economic groups and conglomerates got into media ownership leading to concentration of ownership of the media where few individuals or groups gained control of the media. For example, according to Southern (2001) the mid 20th century saw the consolidation of media ownership in the U. S. A due to economic pressure and mounting competition which led to orientation of media chains. Many other nations including Britain and other European nations took up the trend in the late sixties and as Southern (2001) puts it, these trends and developments informed other countries world over in as far as ownership and control of media is concerned. It is as a result of this that cross ownership and foreign ownership of local media is in the increase. In most countries, the media is a capitalistic operation that is mainly dominated and controlled by private parties whose major drive is minimization of profit. Ownership of such media lies in the hands of a few individuals or groups. As Lowlier Cannels (1994) point out, contemporary researches indicate increasing levels of consolidation, with the media industry already being highly concentrated and dominated by a very small number of firms. This therefore dictates the media content where content that might threaten these interests is censored or doctored to suite these purposes. While citing Picador, Southern(2001) supports this viewpoint arguing that allocation decisions in such a media are made on the basis of economic forces controlling operations of the market. A study of Kenya Media ownership pattern points out how the media is dominated y a few individuals through cross media ownership thus limiting plurality of ideas and opinions. There is therefore need to understand media ownership trends for a number of reasons as put forward by Doyle(2002) who argues that one reason for understanding issues on media ownership is pluralism since concentrated media owners. In addition, he is of the opinion that this concentration narrows down the range of voices that dominate the media thus threatening societal interests. In this regard, it is worth noting that there are a number of media ownership and control tatters which include: state ownership, commercial or private ownership, community ownership and public owner Overview of Media Ownership and Control Patterns Although (1984) identifies four major models or exemplars of media ownership. The first is the official model in which the news outlets are state owned or controlled for example Kenya broadcasting Corporation in Kenya, the Voice of America in America, and the CATV in China. The second model is the commercial ownership which reflects the ideology of advertisers and their media owning allies. In this form of ownership, the media is dominated by private individuals or groups. The third model reflects the financing group such as a political party or religious group. An example of political ownership is the Kenya Times (defunct) which was owned by the then ruling party KANE. Thatchs (1984) states that the fourth model of ownership are the informal pattern which reflects the goals of individual contributors who wants to promote their views. It is important to note that the mix of these patterns varies from country to country and overtime within countries. Similarly, Ferry, Silverberry Final (2009) identify three basic global media ownership systems, each of which exercises a extinct influence on the construction of media messages including state ownership, commercial ownership and community ownership. State Ownership and Control The attribute of this system of ownership is that the news information agencies belong to the state. According to Silverberry et. Al (2009), under this system, the media is regarded as an instrument of the state. The government regards the media as tools to guide the people towards their social political and economic destiny. Consequently all information, including criticism of the government is tightly controlled. The media is wend and controlled by the government mainly to propagate its agenda. This form of ownership has been there for a long time and is still embraced by many countries. This argument is supported by Deferent (2007) who holds it that State ownership and control of newspaper and radio were and remain a key aspect of communist societies such as the former USSR, Romania, china and Cuba. In spite of trends towards liberalizing and deregulation in liberal democratic systems; the state continued to have an involvement in the regulation of media such as radio and Television. The best example of state owned media is the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation. Commercial/Private Media Ownership In this type of ownership, the media may be owned by companies controlled by individuals, families, shareholders or holding companies. Historically, many newspapers were owned, controlled and even edited by individual media entrepreneurs. In the 19th century, for example, many of the so called press barons wielded considerable additional power and allied themselves with the interests of the capitalist class thus gaining ownership and control of many media outlets. It is this form of ownership that has led to concentration of ownership where media hat commercial media ownership may involve a number of configurations which include: Mono-media concentrations and cross media / multimedia concentrations. Mono media concentrations or horizontal concentration refers to concentrated ownership within a single sector of activity such as newspapers, publishing, radio or television while cross media or multimedia concentration on the other hand refers to common ownership across different types of media outlets. It refers to the fact that global media corporations are crossing media boundaries and invest in a wide range of media products in an attempt to maximize profit. For example, ownership of a television station, radio station and a newspaper by the same individual or group. Doyle (2012) further says that cross media concentration can reflect either vertical or diagonal integration or both where vertical integration refers to the common ownership across different phases in the supply chain of a media product such as TV programmer production and TV broadcasting. For example, Royal Media Services Produce programmer such as Papa Shirttails and airs them. Diagonal integration on the other hand meaner common ownership between different sectors such as Television and newspapers or newspapers and radio. Examples in the Kenya Scene is Nation Media Group which owns The Daily Nation, ANT and a number of radio stations such as Easy FM and Q FM. Diagonal integration also occurs when firms diversify into new business ventures such as industrial production or telecommunication. As earlier mentioned private ownership leads to media firms placing profit above public interest which can lead to cultural decay in that popular media can become homogeneity. It often results in industry concentration, which in turn leads to stiffing or alternative points of view. On the other hand, benefits of private media ownership has some benefits which include the fact that it can result in better quality products due to competition, the interest of losing market share to a competitor forces firms to put forth their best products. Community Media Ownership According to Silverberry et. L (2009), Community based media are independent, community owned and run media which are usually organized on a non-profit basis by specific interest groups such as womens collective or an ethnic minority group. According to UNESCO Community owned media is an alternative medium to public \ND commercial media which engages in a social agenda verifying views and facilitating public views and conce rns about context specific issues and discussion. They are thus, operated in the community, for the community, about the community and by the community. It is worth noting that in this case community can be a territorial or geographical a township, village, district or Island or it can also be a group of people with common interests who are not necessarily living in one defined territory. What distinguishes community radio from other media is the high level of peoples participation both in management and program production aspects. Furthermore, individual community members and local institutions are the principal sources of support for its operation. As such community owned media are controlled by the communities that own them and not the government or individuals. A good example of such is Radio Amendable which is owned and controlled by the people of Rained and Ghetto FM which is associated with people from the Ghettos. One audiences, they are typically run on a modest budget and aim to serve the needs and interests of a clearly defined community such as the students in university of people f a small town. They as a result give the best to serve these needs. Also, they are independent from interference by advertisers since they depend upon small amounts of advertising and sponsorship from commercial interests. Other forms of ownership and control patterns include party ownership where a certain political party owns and controls the media. Such a media works for the party by mainly carrying content that is in support of the views of the party or the party leadership. An example of political ownership is the Kenya Times (defunct) which was owned by the then ruling party KANE. Religious groups may also own the media and Just like the political party owned media, such a media helps promote the beliefs and values of the religious group. Radio Waning which is owned by the Catholic Church is such a media. Theoretical Perspective of Media Ownership and Control In considering media ownership and control, theorists emerged with that attempt an explanation on ownership issues and their implications on media. Such theorists include pluralists and Marxist. Pluralists consider the value of the audience in determining media content while Marxist consider the owners as the determiners of Edie content as argued by Fourier (2001) that in Marxist ideology, press content predominantly reflects the interests of the owners and therefore helps maintain the status quo. Pluralists argue that media owners are generally responsible in the way that they manage information since media content is mainly shaped by consumer demand in the market place thus buying public gets what they want while at the same time professional ethics of editors, Journalists and broadcasters are maintained. The argument is that media audiences are the real power holders because they either choose to buy or not. In supporting pluralism in the media in Doyle (2002) brings forward the argument that the existence of pluralism requires both diversity of media owners and media output. Accordingly, pluralism in media ownership goes beyond audience control to involve diversity of media supply which is reflected through the existence of a plurality of media independent and autonomous media and a diversity of media contents available to the public. Marxist theorists in media ownership borrow from the Marxist consideration of existence of economic structure or the base structure. According to them therefore Media is wend and controlled by a few who rank high in the economic structure. They believe that media owners who are members of the capitalist elite class use their media outlets to transmit ruling class ideologies. Mainland (1973) argued that the role of the media in such a case is to shape how we think about the world we live in and suggested that audiences are rarely about important issues. Similarly, Fourier (2001) suggests that the underlying assumption of Marxism is that economic ownership leads to the control of content that promotes the interests of the ruling class at the expense of the masses. This form of ownership and control leads to concentration of ownership and control in the hands off few in the capitalist class in society. Other major theories that explain media ownership and control trends include the authoritarian theory, libertarian theory and the social responsibility theory. Authoritarian Theory control is solely in the hand of the state or the government of the time. The media is controlled by the ruling authority and no one other than authority has any stake in media. (Absolutism in media)The state owns and controls all forms of the mass media erectly. Therefore, the authority for all media is in the hands of a small group of party leaders thus, only legal party members can publish. Accordingly, media are mental production of ideologies as expected by authority. According to Gibbers, Peterson Charms (1963) the authoritarian theory is a theory under which the press, as an institution, is controlled in its functions and operation by organized society through another institution, government. It describes that all forms of communications are under the control of the governing elite or authorities or influential bureaucrats. The function of the press is to support policies and actions of the state and its authority. Thus the units of communication are expected to support and advance the policies of the government in power. Mass media, though not under direct control of the state, has to follow the bidding of the state. According to McLain (1994) the biddings are either through legislation, direct state control of production, codes of conduct imposed, taxation, licensing and other forms of economic sanctions. It may also be controlled through interference of the government in the appointment f editorial staff or suspension of publication. The implication of such form of control in media is that in addition to denying the media its freedom, it causes bias in media content since it is doctored or bent to suit the needs of those in authority. Libertarian Theory The libertarian theory advocates for total freedom of the press where there is no interference whatsoever from any outside forces. Advocates of this theory were Ala Thug an early 16th century philosopher John Locke of Great Britain in the 17th century among others. The French in the 1789 in their declaration of the rights of man wrote hat every citizen may speak write and publish freely. Out of such doctrines came the idea of a free market place of ideas. George Orwell described libertarianism as allowing people to say things you do not want to hear. Libertarians argued that the press should be seen as the 4th estate, reflecting public opinion. According to Gibbers et. Al (1963) libertarianism advocates for absence of restraint in press and thus is based on the inherent individual freedom of expression as a human right. However critics argue that too much freedom of the media is dangerous and as a result advocate that media be checked. Social Responsibility Theory Gibbers et. Al (1963) argue that pure libertarianism is antiquated, out dated and obsolete. This according to them paved way for replacement of Libertarian theory with the Social responsibility theory which allows free press without any censorship but at the same time the content of the press should be discussed in public panel and media should accept any obligation from public interference or professional self regulations or both. The major argument of the social responsibility theory is that media has obligations to fulfill to a democratic society in order to preserve freedom ND thus it should have high standards for professionalism and objectivity, as well as truth and accuracy. It should also reflect the diversity of the cultures they represent and even though it is free to regulate itself, the public has a right to expect professional performance. (The proponents of this theory had strong faith in the good when necessary. This is the form of control that has been embraced by many states today and has proved to be effective if well utilized. Media Ownership and Control in Kenya Historical Background of the Kenya Media The Kenya media started with one newspaper, The African Standard, which started n 1902 as a monthly paper owned by an Asian. While citing Echoing, Iraqi (2010) refers to it as the oldest newspaper In Kenya and claims it took an anti-colonialism stand. Other magazines and newspapers arose later and by independence, there were about three stable and influential newspapers- The Standard, Tibia Leo and Daily Nation owned by private individuals. The Independent government owned and controlled the broadcast media which was solely Voice of Kenya (BOOK) radio and television. Media ownership and control trends changed during the Mom regime especially due to rise of multi-parties in Kenya. This brought with it private ownership of both print and broadcast media. Iraqi (2010) argues that the new political dispensation ushered in some changes in the media topography which saw the rise of Kenya Television Network which was established by the Kenya Media Trust in 1990. Soon after, Nation Television was established by the Nation Media Group. The group later added a radio station; Easy FM. Royal Media Group took up the trend and introduced Radio Citizen and Citizen TV. According to Iraqi (2010) the period between 1992 and 2002 saw the rise of a number of vernacular and other FM stations which provided all sorts of opinions on issues of the day. It is this period that also saw the rise of other newspapers such as The People Daily, Citizen Weekly, The Leader and later The Nairobi Star. A number of other media have arisen driven by the profitability of the market and the assumption that presence of many media outlets translate to plurality of voices and as a result leading to a democratic society. It is worth noting that this has however not been the case in Kenya since despite numerous of media outlets, the opinions are concentrated in the hands of a few who own and control these outlets due to cross media ownership. Cross- Media Ownership in Kenya Countries all over the world have had policies that govern and restrict cross media ownership in order to ensure plurality. For instance, the United Kingdom issued a document CROSS- MEDIA OWNERSHIP that restricted controlling interests in both newspaper and radio. Part IV Schedule 2 Part 3: National newspaper group with 20% or more of the national newspaper market are prohibited service. From holding a license to provide a national or local radio Kenya was not left out and in this regard the Ministry of Information and Communication published the Kenya Communications (broadcasting) regulations which provided for restrictions against cross- media ownership or concentration of media control. The regulation provided that no broadcaster other than the public coverage area. It should be noted that by the time of its establishment, a number of media houses had already crossed media ownership and thus the regulation was already belated. As Murmuring (2011) puts it, already a number of licensed broadcasters had multiple licenses for national coverage of radio or television broadcasts. It is therefore right to argue that Kenya Lacks in rules and regulations that govern and restrict cross- media ownership. Considering the concept of cross- media ownership in Kenya, Iraqi (2002) defines cross-media ownership as a situation where a media house or a person owns more than one media outlet. Murmuring (2011) adds a voice to this by arguing that the Kenya media is dominated by a few players who own different media outlets at the same time. Evidently, Kenya boasts of plurality of outlets but lacks in plurality of opinion despite the many outlets since they air the same opinions due to concentration of ownership and control that comes with cross-media ownership. As things stand, the media in Kenya today is mainly nominated by five major players who own more than three quarters of the media outlets. The five include: Royal Media Services, Nation Media Group, Radio Africa Group media Max and The Standard group. The Royal Media Services is owned by the renowned business man Samuel Manchuria who is one of the media moguls in Kenya today. It owns one of the dominant TV stations; Citizen TV that deals not only in airing of programmer but also production of some local programmer such as Mother- in-Law (vertical concentration). It is also diagonally concentrated in that in addition to owning this TV station, it owns eleven radio stations-nine of which roads in vernacular. These stations include: Radio Citizen , Mirror FM, Ramona FM, Mule FM, Mushy FM, Mug FM, Chamber FM, Ages FM, Woman FM,and Briar FM. The implication at the end of it all is that all these radio stations give the same opinion but in different languages leading to lack of plurality of opinion despite their being so many. The best illustration is their inclination to one particular political alliance during the completed 2013 election campaigns. Nation Media Group ( OMG) is owned by a number of people through share holding. The founder, who is also a ajar share holder, is the Similar His Highness the Gaga khan. The OMG is predominant in the print industry in addition to owning a number of broadcast media; both TV and radio. Iraqi(2002) point out the fact that the OMG owns Tibia Leo, Daily Nation,The daily Metro, The East African, and Business Daily in the newspaper category and adds that the Daily Nation is the most widely read newspaper in Kenya. In the broadcast category, OMG owns two TV stations namely, ANT and Q TV and radio stations such as Easy FM, Q FM and Venus. It is also worth noting that His Highness the Gaga Khan has interests in other sectors such as insurance-Jubilee Insurance Company, Industries and Production- Premier Food Company and even the health sector- Gaga Khan Hospital amongst others. The interests of these other sectors influence the content of these outlets in a way since all the interests of the owner must be protected. The other predominant media is Radio Africa Group which is owned by the Ghanaian Patrick Quarto in partnership with William Pike. The group boasts of owning six radio stations- two of which are the most popular radio stations for the urban elites; Kiss and Classic 105. The others are Radio Jamb, X FM, East FM and Relax FM. The group also owns a TV station; Kiss TV and the third another media house that has dominated the media by owning a number of media outlets. Commonly referred to as Stan Group, the group is owned by former President Mom in partnership with Joshua Ukulele and one of his sons Gideon Mom (Barbara Limited). The group owns one Radio Station; Radio Miasma, a TV station KIT and three newspapers; County Weekly, Standard Digital and The Standard which is the second widely read newspaper in Kenya. The fifth of the five major media houses is Media Max which is associated with the president, Our Kenya. While talking bout Media Max, Mawkishly (2012) says that it is part of TV Africa Holdings which is owned by the Kenya family and which bought SST from Henry Engine in 2007. It took over KEY, a TV station and Came FM which were previously owned by Rose Smooth. The group also bought The People Daily, a newspaper previously owned by the veteran politician Kenneth Mattie in addition to establishing Mile FM which mainly features gospel content. As noted before, the media houses duplicate TV, radio and newspaper content thus giving the same opinion even though they are distinct outlets. In addition, the other interests of the owners such as politics influence the content in favor of certain ideas or opinions. The government and other stake holders need to build up the laws to govern media ownership such a way that will not only provide for plurality of outlets but also of ownership which translates to plurality of opinions. Other media include the government owned CB which owns one TV station; CB TV and two radio stations CB English Service and its Swahili counterpart Idea way Tibia, Community owned Sunshiny FM, Ghetto FM and Pomona FM among others. There are also other smaller privately owned media such as capital Fm, Hope Fm and Hope TV, Assayer TV among others. Positive Aspects of cross media ownership Statues(2008) argues that ownership of multiple media sources in a single market allows companies to diversify their content in order to reach small, niche markets of consumers, rather than focus all of their energy on a lowest-common-denominator mass audience. For example, Royal Media Services is able to reach very remote areas because of the various vernacular radio stations spread across Kenya with the many small sets of audiences identifying with the stations that broadcast in their native languages. This gives Royal Media Services an advantage over radio stations that broadcast only in English or Swahili since it has better penetration in the market. Alan, Albanian Michael (2006) contend that when media companies consolidate resources, they are able to reduce the cost of production and broadcast of shows, making it more profitable for both institutions. Locally an example would be that of Nation Media group that runs two television stations being ANT and QUIT. A team of reporters gather news and prepares features that are available for broadcast on either station. This cuts cost incurred in production, saves time and also provides variety for the stations viewers. Forthright(1999) states that media- cross ownership allows companies to attract advertisers by building larger audiences and distributing the cost of news production across a variety of channels. Forthright(1999) further states survival of free broadcast media. As the number of paid media services increases, traditional free media, such as radio and television, are garnering a smaller audience share and fewer advertising, forcing cuts to newsroom budgets and leading some to reconsider the long-term viability of free broadcasts. Doyle(2002) asserts that media concentration through cross media ownership helps to spread the risk, more importantly perhaps, the wide spread availability of economies of scale and scope meaner that firms stand to benefit from strategies of diagonal [lateral expansions. Many firms have become transnational, I. E corporations with a presence in many countries. Globalization has encouraged media operators to look beyond the local market. For instance, even if The Star does not do well in the market, It can be sustained by its sister outlets Kiss 100 and Classic 105 which do relatively well. For local media outlets, the large corporate backing helps attract sponsors that they may not have otherwise had access to. This therefore creates opportunities for larger corporations to reach into smaller local markets they have yet to penetrate. Examples are sponsored Royal Media road shows organized in the different counties. Although critics argue that media consolidation results in less news and public affairs programming in local markets, Milky(2007) insists that local television newscasts for cross-owned stations contain one to two minutes more news coverage overall than the average for non-cross-owned stations. Technological innovations such as satellite and cable television and the Internet have created an explosion of sources of news and information that makes monopolistic control virtually impossible. According to Gatos (2008) concentration of media holdings has not resulted in fewer media owners as some critics have argued, he notes that the number of separately owned media outlets instead increased by as much as 90 percent in some markets between 1960 and 2000. In addition to all these, it is evident that in Kenya, cross ownership in media has helped bring information to otherwise would be unrealized areas thus empowering even the illiterate who do not understand the national or official language.